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References - Algal Oil - A vegan-friendly source of DHA

1. Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;56(8):365-379. DOI: 10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00253-6

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4. Matos ÂP. The impact of microalgae in food science and technology. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2017 Sep;94:1333-1350. DOI: 10.1007/s11746-017-3050-7

5. Saini RK, Prasad P, Sreedhar RV, Akhilender Naidu K, Shang X, Keum YS. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): emerging plant and microbial sources, oxidative stability, bioavailability, and health benefits-a review. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021 Oct;10(10):1627. DOI: 10.3390/antiox10101627

6. Ryan L, Symington AM. Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA). J Funct Foods. 2015;19:825-858. DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2014.06.023

7. Martins DA, Custódio L, Barreira L, Pereira H, Ben-Hamadou R, Varela J, et al. Alternative sources of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine microalgae. Mar Drugs. 2013 Jun;11(7):2259-2281. DOI: 10.3390/md11072259

8. García-Maldonado E, Alcorta A, Zapatera B, Vaquero MP. Changes in fatty acid levels after consumption of a novel docosahexaenoic supplement from algae: a crossover randomized controlled trial in omnivorous, lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans. Eur J Nutr. 2023 Jun;62(4):1691-1705. DOI: 10.1007/s00394-022-03050-3

9. Fekete K, Decsi T. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in inborn errors of metabolism. Nutrients. 2010 Sep;2(9):965-974. DOI: 10.3390/nu2090965

10. Burns-Whitmore B, Froyen E, Heskey C, Parker T, San Pablo G. Alpha-linolenic and linoleic fatty acids in the vegan diet: do they require dietary reference intake/adequate intake special consideration? Nutrients. 2019 Oct;11(10):2365. DOI: 10.3390/nu11102365

11. Linus Pauling Institute. Essential fatty acids [Internet]. Corvallis: Oregon State University; 2019 [cited 2024 Mar 25]. Available from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/essential-fatty-acids

12. Meyer BJ. Australians are not meeting the recommended intakes for omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: results of an analysis from the 2011-2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Nutrients. 2016 Feb;8(3):111. DOI: 10.3390/nu8030111

13. Heart Foundation. Dietary position statement: fish, seafood & heart healthy eating – updated 2015 [Internet]. Docklands: National Heart Foundation of Australia; 2015 [cited 2024 Mar 21]. Available from: https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/bundles/for-professionals/nutrition-position-statements

14. Vuorinen A, Bailey-Hall E, Karagiannis A, Yu S, Roos F, Sylvester E, et al. Safety of algal oil containing EPA and DHA in cats during gestation, lactation and growth. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). 2020 Sep;104(5):1509-1523. DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13324

15. Carlson SE, Gajewski BJ, Valentine CJ, Rogers LK, Weiner CP, DeFranco EA, et al. Assessment of DHA on reducing early preterm birth: the ADORE randomized controlled trial protocol. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2017 Feb;17(1):62. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-017-1244-1245

16. Schmitt D, Tran N, Peach J, Edwards T, Greeley M. Toxicologic evaluations of DHA-rich algal oil in rats: developmental toxicity study and 3-month dietary toxicity study with an in utero exposure phase. Food Chem Toxicol. 2012 Nov;50(11):4149-4157. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.08.035

17. Yang Y, Li G, Li F, Xu F, Hu P, Xie Z, et al. Impact of DHA from algal oil on the breast milk DHA levels of lactating women: a randomized controlled trial in China. Nutrients. 2022;14(16):3410. DOI: 10.3390/nu14163410

18. Nevins JEH, Donovan SM, Snetselaar L, Dewey KG, Novotny R, Stang J, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements consumed during pregnancy and lactation and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review. J Nutr. 2021 Nov 2;151(11):3483-3494. DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab238

19. Yeiser M, Harris CL, Kirchoff AL, Patterson AC, Wampler JL, Zissman EN, et al. Growth and tolerance of infants fed formula with a new algal source of docosahexaenoic acid: double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2016 Dec;115:89-96. DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2016.09.001

20. Alicandro G, Faelli N, Gagliardini R, Santini B, Magazzù G, Biffi A, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled study on high-dose oral algal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with cystic fibrosis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2013 Feb;88(2):163-169. DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2012.10.002

21. Richardson AJ, Burton JR, Sewell RP, Spreckelsen TF, Montgomery P. Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, cognition and behavior in children aged 7-9 years: a randomized, controlled trial (the DOLAB Study). PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e43909. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043909

22. Robertsen I, Åsberg A, Jenssen TG, Gence B, Tore Vethe N, Midtvedt K, et al. Increased systemic exposure of once-daily tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients on marine omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. Transpl Int. 2021 Jul;34(7):1322-1324. DOI: 10.1111/tri.13917

23. Cortinovis M, Gotti E, Remuzzi G, Perico N, Cattaneo D, Baldelli S. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids affect sirolimus exposure in kidney transplant recipients on calcineurin inhibitor-free regimen. Transplantation. 2010 Jan;15;89(1):126-127. DOI: 10.1097/TP.0b013e3181c280df

24. Busnach G, Stragliotto E, Minetti E, Perego A, Brando B, Broggi ML, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics in kidney graft recipients: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J Nephrol. 1998 Mar-Apr;11(2):87-93.

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26. Jalili M, Dehpour AR. Extremely prolonged INR associated with warfarin in combination with both trazodone and omega-3 fatty acids. Arch Med Res. 2007 Nov;38(8):901-904. DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.05.004

27. McClaskey EM, Michalets EL. Subdural hematoma after a fall in an elderly patient taking high-dose omega-3 fatty acids with warfarin and aspirin: case report and review of the literature. Pharmacotherapy. 2007 Jan;27(1):152-160. DOI: 10.1592/phco.27.1.152

28. Buckley MS, Goff AD, Knapp WE. Fish oil interaction with warfarin. Ann Pharmacother. 2004 Jan;38(1):50-52. DOI: 10.1345/aph.1D007

29. Smith P, Arnesen H, Opstad T, Dahl KH, Eritsland J. Influence of highly concentrated N-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and hemostatic variables in survivors of myocardial infarction receiving either oral anticoagulants or matching placebo. Thromb Res. 1989 Mar;53(5):467-474. DOI: 10.1016/0049-3848(89)90201-6

30. Kapoor K, Alfaddagh A, Rifai MA, Bhatt DL, Budoff MJ, Nasir K, et al. Association between omega-3 fatty acid levels and risk for incident major bleeding events and atrial fibrillation: MESA. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021 Jun;10(11):e021431. DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.121.021431

31. Jeansen S, Witkamp RF, Garthoff JA, van Helvoort A, Calder PC. Fish oil LC-PUFAs do not affect blood coagulation parameters and bleeding manifestations: analysis of 8 clinical studies with selected patient groups on omega-3-enriched medical nutrition. Clin Nutr. 2018 Jun;37(3):948-957. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.03.027

32. Offman E, Davidson M, Nilsson C. No effect of omega-3 carboxylic acids on pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of warfarin or on platelet function when co-administered with acetylsalicylic acid: results of two phase I studies in healthy volunteers. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2017 Jun;17(3):251-260. DOI: 10.1007/s40256-017-0217-4.

33. Harris WS. Fish oils and bleeding-where is the evidence. JAMA Intern Med. 2016 Sep;176(9):1405-1406. DOI: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.3968

34. Gajos G, Zalewski J, Nessler J, Zmudka K, Undas A, Piwowarska W. Polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids improve responsiveness to clopidogrel after percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with cytochrome P450 2C19 loss-of-function polymorphism. Kardiol Pol. 2012;70(5):439-445.

35. Vanschoonbeek K, Feijge MAH, Paquay M, Rosing J, Saris W, Kluft C, et al. Variable hypocoagulant effect of fish oil intake in humans: modulation of fibrinogen level and thrombin generation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004 Sep;24(9):1734-1740. DOI: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000137119.28893.0b

36. Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, Cook NR, Manson JE, Albert CM. Effect of long-term marine ɷ-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2021 Dec;144(25):1981-1990. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654

37. Lombardi M, Carbone S, Del Buono MG, Chiabrando JG, Vescovo GM, Camilli M, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and risk of atrial fibrillation: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2021 Jul;7(4):e69-e70. DOI: 10.1093/ehjcvp/pvab008

38. Nicholls SJ, Lincoff AM, Garcia M, Bash D, Ballantyne CM, Barter PJ, et al. Effect of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids vs corn oil on major adverse cardiovascular events in patients at high cardiovascular risk: the STRENGTH randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020 Dec;324(22):2268-2280. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2020.22258

39. Sarter B, Kelsey KS, Schwartz TA, Harris WS. Blood docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in vegans: Associations with age and gender and effects of an algal-derived omega-3 fatty acid supplement. Clin Nutr. 2015 Apr;34(2):212-218. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2014.03.003

40. Simopoulos AP. An increase in the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio increases the risk for obesity. Nutrients. 2016 Mar;8(3):128. DOI: 10.3390/nu8030128

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43. Sanders TAB. DHA status of vegetarians. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009;81(2-3):137-141. DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.013

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46. Basak S, Mallick R, Duttaroy AK. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid status during pregnancy and its impact on infant neurodevelopment. Nutrients. 2020 Nov;12(12):3615. DOI: 10.3390/nu12123615

47. Panda C, Varadharaj S, Voruganti VS. PUFA, genotypes and risk for cardiovascular disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2022 Jan;176:102377. DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2021.102377

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50. Craddock JC, Probst YC, Neale EP, Peoples GE. A cross-sectional comparison of the whole blood fatty acid profile and omega-3 index of male vegan and omnivorous endurance athletes. J Am Nutr Assoc. 2022;41(3):333-341. DOI: 10.1080/07315724.2021.1886196

51. Greupner T, Kutzner L, Pagenkopf S, Kohrs H, Hahn A, Schebb NH, et al. Effects of a low and a high dietary LA/ALA ratio on long-chain PUFA concentrations in red blood cells. Food Funct. 2018 Sep;9(9):4742-4754. DOI: 10.1039/c8fo00735g

52. Harris WS. The omega-6:omega-3 ratio: a critical appraisal and possible successor. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2018 May;132:34-40. DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.003

53. Middleton P, Gomersall JC, Gould JF, Shepherd E, Olsen SF, Makrides M. Omega-3 fatty acid addition during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Nov;11(11):CD003402. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003402.pub3

54. Lepping RJ, Honea RA, Martin LE, Liao K, Choi IY, Lee P, et al. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in the first year of life affects brain function, structure, and metabolism at age nine years. Dev Psychobiol. 2019 Jan;61(1):5-16. DOI: 10.1002/dev.21780

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56. Magnusson J, Ekström S, Kull I, Håkansson N, Nilsson S, Wickman M, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma at 8 years and subsequent allergic disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018 Aug;142(2):510-516.e6. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2017.09.023

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59. Grosso G, Micek A, Marventano S, Castellano S, Mistretta A, Pajak A, et al. Dietary n-3 PUFA, fish consumption and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. J Affect Disord. 2016 Nov;205:269-281. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.011

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76. Carlson SE, Gajewski BJ, Valentine CJ, Kerling EH, Weiner CP, Cackovic M, et al. Higher dose docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and early preterm birth: a randomised, double-blind, adaptive-design superiority trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2021 Jun;36:100905. DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100905

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78. Fougère H, Bilodeau JF, Lavoie PM, Mohamed I, Rudkowska I, Pronovost E, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid-rich algae oil supplementation on breast milk fatty acid profile of mothers who delivered prematurely: a randomized clinical trial. Sci Rep. 2021 Nov;11(1):21492. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01017-8

79. Kuratko CN, Barrett EC, Nelson EB, Salem N. The relationship of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) with learning and behavior in healthy children: a review. Nutrients. 2013 Jul;5(7):2777-2810. DOI: 10.3390/nu5072777

80. McNamara RK, Able J, Jandacek R, Rider T, Tso P, Eliassen JC, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation increases prefrontal cortex activation during sustained attention in healthy boys: a placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Apr;91(4):1060-1067. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28549

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83. Dawczynski C, Dittrich M, Neumann T, Goetze K, Welzel A, Oelzner P, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized cross-over study with microalgae vs. sunflower oil. Clin Nutr. 2018 Apr;37(2):494-504. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.02.021

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